spread of citrus in the mediterranean significance

Historically, the citron is important inasmuch as it was the first fruit of the genus citrus to be cultivated in the Mediterranean. A detailed survey of the Jewish written sources of citron was recently published by Langgut (2015). The citron in the Hebrew Bible and Jewish tradition. Hope and G.E. 1A) from contexts dated to the 11–13th century AD. Villa A (“of Poppaea”) at Oplontis (Torre Annunziata, Italy), volume 1: The ancient setting and modern rediscovery. Torrey Bot. Webber, and L.D. Summary and conclusions about the western diffusion of C. medica. Here, the route of the spread and diversification of citrus is traced through the use of reliable historical information (ancient texts, art, and artifacts such as wall paintings and coins) and archaeobotanical remains such as fossil pollen grains, charcoals, seeds, and other fruit remains. & Fuller, D. 2013 Citrus fruits: Origins and developments, p. 1479–1483. Within the description, in the Books of the Maccabees 2 10:6–7, there is no mention of “the fruit of goodly trees” but rather “ivy-wreathed wands and beautiful branches and also fronds of palm” (Schwartz, 2005). 52). Encycl. 2) Archaeological context—great attention must be paid to the quality associations between botanical remains and the archaeological contexts from which the samples originate; the botanical remains should come from a secure context in terms of stratigraphy to prevent contamination or mixing with previous and later archaeological layers. & Welter-Schultes, F.W. Please e-mail info@asor.org if you have questions or need help. It is also useful when one has drunk deadly poison; for being given in wine it upsets the stomach and brings up the poison…”. Oxbow Books, Oxford, Calabrese, F. 1998 The fascinating history of citrus fruit. This was first overland via Asia Minor and the Middle East as Roman and Greek influence spread (citron fruit, bitter orange) and then through Islam and the Crusades (sour citrus). In: J.R. Clarke and N.K. In this study, several sources of ancient texts have been used such as Jewish, Greco-Roman, and Arabic texts; these written sources were recently reviewed, respectively (Langgut, 2015; Pagnoux et al., 2013; Ramón-Laca, 2003). The other, later arriving citrus species, are grafted to keep their desired fruit characteristics. & Langgut, D. 2012 The riddle of Ramat Rahel: The archaeology of a royal edifice from the Persian periods Transeuphraten 41 57 79, Liran, N. 2013 The etrog in the Jewish culture: Interdisciplinary study of the ritual object throughout the ages. The first textual evidence that may refer to the citron in Western sources was probably in the play Boiotis written by Antiphanes, an important writer of Middle Attic comedy (408–334 BC). Brill, Leiden, Gur, A. de Córdoba, Cordoba, Al-filā a n-nabatīyya. But while citrus is now iconic, it may come as a surprise that it is not native to the Mediterranean Basin; these species originated thousands of miles away, in Southeast Asia. Oxford Univ. & Grüger, E. 2002 Pollen analysis of soil samples from the A.D. 79 level: Pompeii, Oplontis, and Boscoreale, p. 181–216. A citron is similar to a lemon, but bigger and with a thicker rind. While examining the plaster of one of the pools in the garden, dating to the fifth and fourth centuries BC, fossilized C. medica pollen grains were identified. In the fourth century mosaic from the Mausoleum of Constantia, citrons, lemons, and oranges are depicted, all of them still attached to freshly cut branches carrying green leaves. Pp. History, world distribution, botany, and varieties. Atti del Convegno Internazionale, Roma 1–3 febbraio 2007. Abstract: In recent years, the spread to new Mediterranean areas of citriculture with its new cultural practices, new citrus varieties and a changing climate, has led to the need to cope with new or re-emerging fungal plant diseases. Yad Ben Zvi, Jerusalem, Anatomy of European woods: An atlas for the identification of European trees, shrubs and dwarf shrubs. Citrus groves spread again in Italy where they flourished in the mild climate along Lake Garda and the Brenta and Ligurian coasts. The first specimen of a mandarin cultivar was brought from China to England in 1805 and then to Italy, where it became well established before 1850. In Antiquities of the Jews (late first century AD), Flavius Josephus describes how the Jews threw citrons at Alexander Jannaeus for disrespecting the libation ritual (compare with Mishna tractate Sukkah 4:9). Plant Sci. 25 34 40, Grüger, E. & Thulin, B. reached the Mediterranean only in the early 19th century. Genet. & Meyer F.G. 2002 The natural history of Pompeii. Club 102, Spiegel-Roy, P. & Goldschmidt, E.E. & Lumaga, M.R.B. 13th IOCV Conf. In my opinion, there are two possibilities regarding this artistic evidence: 1) the Roman artists were familiar to some extent with the exotic orange fruit, but the tree was not necessarily grown in the western Mediterranean; the artists may have seen the orange during their travels abroad; it is also possible that they were foreign art experts. Sweet orange (C. sinesis) was introduced during the second half of the 15th century AD, probably via the trade route established by the Genoese, and later (16th century AD) by the Portuguese. Nuove ricerche archeologiche nell’area vesuviana (scavi 2003–2006). In the western Mediterranean, a relatively rich ensemble of both microbotanical and macrobotanical remains of C. medica is available, mainly from the Vesuvius area, which even predates the assemblage from Egypt. The citron was the first citrus fruit to reach the Mediterranean, probably via Persia (Langgut, 2015; Langgut et al., 2013; Zohary et al., 2012). Rigid specifications were laid down by the rabbis to which all citrons used for the holiday ritual had to conform the following: the fruit must be fresh, its skin must be undamaged, the stigma and style which develop the persistent style must be in place, and at least the base of the stalk must be attached to the fruit. Citrus fruits and trees appear in several forms of ancient artifacts, namely reliefs, wall paintings, mosaics, and coins. In: P.G. 1A) dating to the first–fourth centuries AD [Quseir al-Qadim (van der Veen, 2011), Mons Porphyrites (van der Veen and Tabinor, 2007), Kellis, Dakhleh (Thanheiser et al., 2002), and Mons Claudianus (van der Veen, 1996, 2001)]; within the latter site not only C. medica seeds were found but also one near-complete fruit. Archaeobotanical evidence indicates that in the Nippur archaeological excavation, in the south of ancient Babylonia, citrus seeds dating to the Sumerian period (≈2000 BC) were discovered (cited by Bonavia, 1894: 68). Proc. The citron is not mentioned directly by name; just good looking and very delicious apples are described as part of a delivery from the Persian ruler, and it is explained as a unique fruit, very rare and therefore very expensive. Different characteristics of each of the citrus species discussed in this article are summarized in Table 1. the Mediterranean saw its heyday of trade under the territorial height of the Roman Empire. MEDITERRANEAN NETWORK: In the previous period (600 B.C.E. Oxbow Books, Oxford, Theophrastus,. The natural history of Pompeii. This article combines the following line of evidence to trace the route of the western diffusion of citrus: botanical remains, art artifacts, and ancient texts. This article was presented as part of a workshop titled “Fresh Perspectives on Citrus History” during the ASHS Annual Conference, which was held on 4–7 August, 2015, in New Orleans, LA. 2011 From forest to field: Perennial fruit crop domestication Amer. Several suggestions were previously made connecting fruits appearing on ancient reliefs to citron. Hist. There is of course also a possibility that the two approaches are correct, especially since the remains were found in two different eras (Roman and Islamic periods) and the citrus types (citron vs. lime) are different. In general, it is found in most tropical and subtropical areas of the world. In: C.A. Yet, these findings indicate, with a reasonable conviction, much older cases of citrus viroid disease infections in citrus trees growing in the Near East almost two millennia ago (Bar-Joseph, 1996). At the same time, al-Tignari from Granada also mentioned the pummelo in his writings and so did a little later by Ibn al-‘Awwam (1802). 52). Springer, Berlin, Germany, Wu, G.A., Prochnik, S., Jenkins, J., Salse, J., Hellsten, U., Murat, F. & Machado, M.A. Oren Press Production, Tel Aviv, Israel (in Hebrew), Flora of the bible. In: A. It seems, therefore, that lemon was the second citrus species introduced to the Mediterranean. Several decades later, the citron was depicted on a coin again, during the revolt of Simon Bar Kokhba (132–136 AD), together with the other three species which are used in the Feast of Tabernacles (Fig. In: V.A. The data enabled me to understand the spread of citrus from Southeast Asia into the Mediterranean. (2002) pointed out that citrus trees could have been cultivated in the western Egyptian desert as a garden plant in the oasis. On the other hand, some images (it is not clear whether they were sweet or sour) are questionably proposed to represent oranges in early Roman art (mentioned previously in relation to the sour orange). Tratado octavo. The hybridization that resulted in the formation of the sour orange most probably took place in southern China or northern Indo-china (Weisskopf and Fuller, 2013). Its westward migration from eastern Asia into the Roman world seems to reflect its exotic qualities and it therefore migrated as an elite product destined to luxurious Roman gardens. Hist. 1A; van der Veen, 2011). 1Corresponding author. These botanical remains were evaluated for their reliability (in terms of identification, archaeological context and dating), and other possible interpretations. Survey and excavations at Mons Claudianus 1987–1993, volume 2. Oded Lipschits provided assistance with the interpretation of Biblical and other Jewish texts, and Itamar Ben-Ezra and Mark Cavanagh helped with figures preparation. 2002 Roman agriculture and gardening in Egypt as seen from Kellis, p. 299–310. "My findings show that citrons and lemons were the first citrus fruits to arrive in the Mediterranean and were status symbols for the elite. Indeed, it appears that the citron was considered a valuable commodity since ancient times because of its healing qualities, symbolic use, and pleasant smell on the one hand and its rarity on the other (e.g., Zohary et al., 2012), possibly making the citron known to the people in the region by reputation throughout antiquity. Register today for FREE to become a Friend of ASOR so that you can join our team and receive exclusive benefits (The Ancient Near East Today and Online Resources). 2014 Sequencing of diverse mandarin, pummelo and orange genomes reveals complex history of admixture during citrus domestication Nat. (2002: 102) discussed this mosaic, they did not mention the possibility of oranges. Chevalier, E. Marinova, and L. Pena-Chocarro (eds.). In addition, citron, unlike other citrus species is largely inedible and can be preserved for months because of its thick albedo. In the course of research I traced the spread and diversification of citrus through a variety of historical information, including ancient texts, art, and artifacts such as wall paintings and coins, and by gathering all the available archaeobotanical remains: fossil pollen grains, charcoal, seeds, and other fruit remains. The citron, more- Like the Silk Road trade, this network declined when Rome weakened. Fruit production in the Mediterranean will be affected by climate change. The occurrence of citrus pollen grains in a palynological spectrum is therefore direct evidence that it actually grew in the vicinity of the site in which it was found. Similar symptoms were already present on the second century AD Bar Kokhba coins mentioned previously (Fig. Yet, according to van der Veen (2011), there is confusion in references between the lime and the lemon, and therefore, it is not certain which of the two fruit types was imported. The dispersal of these fruits was possible because the Islamic world controlled extensive territory and commercial routes reaching from India to the Mediterranean. Pliny explained that because of its great medical values, various nations have tried to acclimatize it in their own countries, importing it in clay vessels provided with breathing holes for the roots, but it has refused to grow except in Media and Persia. Bul. These two distinctive characteristics (westernmost origin and relatively long preservation) may be part of the explanation why the citron was the first citrus crop to immigrate westwards. Jashemski, and F.G. Meyer (eds.). 31 35 46, Arias, B.A. Today, various citrus fruits (Citrus spp. In: A. Press, Cambridge, Commerce, culture, and community in a Red Sea port in the thirteenth century: The Arabic documents from Quseir (Vol. In: W.F. Documents of Chazal from this period indicate that the citron was fully accepted as part of the Tabernacles holiday tradition, with no mention of any kind of objection (Amar, 2012:108–109; Isaac, 1959:182). of London, London, Coubray, S. 1996 Restes végétaux du dépôt votif Atti Mem. 112 1519 1531, Barrett, H.C. & Rhodes, A.M. 1976 A numerical taxonomic study of affinity relationships in cultivated citrus and its close relatives Syst. Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale du Caire, Cairo, van der Veen, M. 2011 Consumption, trade and innovation: Exploring the botanical remains from the Roman and Islamic ports at Quseir al-Qadim, Egypt. History, world distribution, botany, and varieties. However, the rapid spread of Islam across north Africa and the continuation of Roman civilization in the Byzantine Empire would revive trade in the post-classical age. Note that according to Bar-Joseph (1996), the citron shows malformation symptom similar to those caused by viroid disease. The assumed date of introduction into the Mediterranean Basin and its possible causes are also presented in this table and discussed in detail in the following text. Cambridge Univ. The palynological diagram presented by Bui Thi and Girard (2014, Fig. 2A). From a different piece written by Theophrastus, it appears that the discovery of sterile flowers with no persistent style was first made by Persian gardeners, who informed the Greek botanists (Tolkowsky, 1966). The Citrus in the Mediterranean Region. Dr. Dafna Langgut is Head of the Laboratory of Archaeobotany and Ancient Environments at the Institute of Archaeology at Tel Aviv University. No doubt the Arabs played a major role in the spread of the sour orange from the 10th century AD onward into Persia, Iraq, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt and apparently later into northern Africa, Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain (Webber, 1967). 96 812 822, Ferrari, G.B. Univ. Starting in the first century AD, there is a significant change in texts in which the four species used in the feast of Tabernacles are defined as palm, willow, myrtle, and citron. This region is also characterized by a relatively warmer climate and is therefore suitable for pummelo cultivation. Wolbachia CI can therefore be applied in mosquito control, e.g. He described its use as a medicine, poison antidote, and perfume, and as offering protection from moths. (2013). The main problems are related to the interpretation of the appearance of citrus on those objects in terms of the following: 1) the significance of their presence and 2) secure identification. In: W. Reuther, H.J. Imprenta Nacional, Lisboa, Some economic plants and weeds from the Bronze Age of Cyprus, Kitāb al-filāha. Today, various citrus fruits (Citrus spp. Bot. Tratado octavo. Libro de agricultura 1. The second observation has to do with the tree’s flowers having a persistent style, which develops in citrons from the style and the stigma and making them more fertile as opposed to other flowers found to be sterile; in other Citrus species, this part degenerates. Maxfield and D.P.S. The citrus industry 1. Plant Sci. This appears to be the intention in Leviticus 27:30 and in Nehemiah 10:36, where the verses do not refer to any specific kind of tree. John Bale, Sons & Curnow, London, Tolkowsky, S. 1966 Citrus fruits – their origin and history throughout the world. It appears that the citron was considered a valuable commodity due to its healing qualities, symbolic use, pleasant odor and its rarity, such that only the rich could have afforded it. The three edible ancestral species of the main commercial citrus types are citron (C. medica), pummelo (C. maxima), and mandarin (C. reticulata). Its arrival is probably linked with the trade route established by the Genoese and then in the 16 century CE by the Portuguese. In: J.R. Clarke and N.K. Chevalier, E. Marinova, and L. Pena-Chocarro (eds.). The citron (citrus medica, better known in the Jewish tradition as the etrog) was the first citrus fruit to reach the Mediterranean, via Persia. A microtomographic-based re-assessment C. R. Palevol 9 277 282, Curk, F., Ollitrault, F., Garcia-Lor, A., Luro, F., Navarro, L. & Ollitrault, P. 2016 Phylogenetic origin of limes and lemons revealed by cytoplasmic and nuclear markers Ann. Recently published pollen findings from a Persian royal garden next to a lavish palace excavated at the Ramat Rahel site near Jerusalem, when the area was a Persian province (Lipschits et al., 2012) shed new light on the dating of the cultivation of C. medica in the Mediterranean (Langgut et al., 2013). If at that stage it was grown only in the Vesuvius area, it may have vanished following the eruption. Accordia Research Institute, Univ. University Haifa, Haifa, PhD Diss. Mediterranean cuisines that feature citrus are thus relatively recent developments, and their appearance in European (and American diets) even later. Abstract. Scholars maintain that Theophrastus’s emphasis that the tree grew in Media and Persia is further evidence that before ≈300 BC, the citron was not widely cultivated outside Media and Persia (e.g., Tolkowsky, 1966). In: J.A. Cambridge Univ. (2002) claimed that the Romans clearly distinguished the lemon and the citron as two different fruits; the lemon and the citron are each accurately portrayed showing their different characteristics and relative sizes. On the other hand, Theophrastus did not describe the fruit itself, but rather its characteristics, which may suggest the citron fruit was known to the Greeks, but was not cultivated in their homelands. Therefore, it is likely that because of its relatively long shelf life, citron was used in antiquity as a long-distance elite trading product. H. Schens, Rome, Fiorentino, G. & Marinò, G. 2008 Analisi archeobotaniche preliminari al Tempio di Venere di Pompei, p. 527–528. In the eastern Mediterranean, seeds and fruit remains from secure contexts were retrieved from several Roman settlements in Egyptian remote desert locations (Fig. 5) The mandarin was introduced to the region only at the beginning of the 19th century. Sour orange (C. aurantium), lime (C. aurantifolia), and pummelo (C. maxima) did not reach the Mediterranean until the 10th century AD, after the Islamic conquest. [12] Citrus was especially prized in the 17th century by Dutch botanists whose botanical gardens at Leiden and Amsterdam brought the exotic fruit to … This essay shows that each type of evidence should be evaluated carefully for its authenticity and significance before a conclusion can be drawn. 1967 history and development of the Laboratory of Archaeobotany and ancient Environments at the palace... 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